Horkheimer's 1930s philosophy sought to overcome the 'logical necessity' that constrained specialized sciences and traditional theory of knowledge. Tracing this necessity to Kant's concept of the understanding, Horkheimer rejected the 'philosophy of consciousness' that accepts this necessity and creates a second reality, opposing materialism as an alternative. Dialectic 'Representation'—the methodology of a materialist theory of knowledge—is grounded in Marx's inversion of Hegelian dialectics and operates according to a logic opposed to traditional logical inference, serving an emancipatory interest to disclose contradictions inherent in social reality.
Perioperative use of (es)ketamine significantly reduces the risk of postoperative delirium (POD) but does not prevent postoperative neurocognitive disorder (POND). Subgroup analyses indicate that esketamine is more effective for delirium prevention, whereas racemic ketamine provides better cognitive protection.