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Shamanism

Traditional and cross-cultural practices working with non-ordinary states for healing and meaning.

State of the evidence

Synthesized

Synthesized from 24 studies in the library · AI-generated, grounded in the abstracts below

Found by searching the library for Shamanism, shamanic, entheogenic ritual, indigenous healing, then ranked by relevance.

Research on shamanism spans archaeological, ethnographic, neurophysiological, and psychological perspectives, consistently documenting its role as a cross-cultural healing and spiritual practice involving altered states of consciousness, often facilitated by psychoactive plants or music. Evidence from a single neuroimaging study suggests shamanic trance involves a shift from left-analytical to right-experiential brain activity, while survey and ethnographic data indicate that participation in shamanic rituals (e.g., ayahuasca ceremonies) is associated with reductions in neuroticism and reports of therapeutic benefits, though these findings are limited by small samples, open-label designs, and potential romanticization of indigenous traditions. The main caveat is that most evidence is qualitative or observational, with no controlled trials, and the field lacks systematic research on risks, cultural appropriation, and long-term outcomes.

Confidence in the evidence

Low-Moderate
  • Only one neurophysiological study (n=1) directly measures brain changes during shamanic trance, limiting generalizability.
  • Personality change findings (n=256) are from open-label, non-randomized designs with high risk of bias.
  • Multiple ethnographic and theoretical studies provide rich qualitative data but no causal evidence.
  • Consistent direction across studies supports shamanism's association with altered states and perceived healing, but effect sizes and mechanisms remain unclear.
How we rate confidence

Confidence reflects the strength of the underlying evidence, not whether the result is favorable. It weighs the number and size of studies, their design (randomized trials count for more than observational or single-case work), how consistently they point the same way, and their risk of bias.

Tiers run from Insufficient to High. High is rare in this field: small, early, or open-label studies land lower even when their direction is encouraging.

Evidence by study

Direction is each study's finding relative to your question: Supports, Opposes, No effect, Mixed, or Unclear.

Chemical evidence for the use of multiple psychotropic plants in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle from South America. 2019
Supports

Chemical traces of multiple psychoactive plants (bufotenine, DMT, harmine, cocaine) in a 1,000-year-old ritual bundle support the historical use of shamanic paraphernalia.

archaeological chemical analysis Sample size: 1

Ayahuasca Shamanism in the Amazon and Beyond 2014
Unclear

Discusses how Amazonian shamanic rituals involving ayahuasca have spread to Western societies and been transformed through cultural dialogue.

book

Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism 1998
Unclear

Compares psychedelic psychotherapy and shamanic healing, highlighting differences in worldview, particularly the shamanic belief in multiple realities and spirits.

theoretical review

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview 2008
Unclear

Reviews the history, taxonomy, and traditional use of hallucinogenic mushrooms (primarily Psilocybe) in Mexican indigenous cultures.

review

Ayahuasca Tourism: Participants in Shamanic Rituals and their Personality Styles, Motivation, Benefits and Risks 2015
Supports

Participants reported motivations including curiosity, mental health treatment, and spiritual development, and benefits including self-knowledge and improved relationships; personality scores showed above-average intuition and optimism.

cross-sectional survey Sample size: 77

Brain changes during a shamanic trance: Altered modes of consciousness, hemispheric laterality, and systemic psychobiology 2017
Supports

Quantitative EEG and LORETA source imaging during self-induced shamanic trance showed a shift from left-analytical to right-experiential brain activity and from anterior prefrontal to posterior somatosensory mode.

case study (neurophysiological) Sample size: 1

"Plantas con madre": plants that teach and guide in the shamanic initiation process in the East-Central Peruvian Amazon. 2011
Unclear

Identified 55 plant species used in shamanic initiation and apprenticeship, administered under strict conditions called 'dietas'.

ethnographic study Sample size: 36

Shamanism as the Original Neurotheology 2004
Unclear

Argues that universal principles of shamanism (animism, soul flight, death-rebirth) reflect innate brain modules and provide a basis for neurotheology.

theoretical review

Purging and the body in the therapeutic use of ayahuasca 2019
Supports

Purging is integral to ayahuasca's therapeutic use across Amazonia and should be reconsidered for potential therapeutic effects rather than dismissed as side effect.

ethnographic study with literature review Sample size: 227

The Globalization of Ayahuasca Shamanism and the Erasure of Indigenous Shamanism 2016
Opposes

Romanticization of indigenous shamanism in ayahuasca tourism erases the complexity of indigenous peoples' situations and the commercialization of their spirituality.

ethnographic study

Examining changes in personality following shamanic ceremonial use of ayahuasca. 2021
Supports

Ceremonial ayahuasca use was associated with a large reduction in Neuroticism (self-report dz = -1.00 at post, -0.85 at 3-month follow-up; informant-report dz = -0.62 at follow-up).

longitudinal observational study Sample size: 256

The globalization of traditional medicine in northern peru: from shamanism to molecules. 2013
Unclear

Documents 510 medicinal plant species used in traditional medicine, with 65% used in mixtures; antibacterial activity confirmed in most plants used for infections.

ethnographic study with bioassays

Cognitive Neuroscience, Shamanism and the Rock Art of Native California 1998
Unclear

Argues that Native Californian rock art depicts mental imagery and somatic hallucinations of trance, and that shamanic trance often involved unpleasant emotions.

theoretical review

From Culture to Experience: Shamanism in the Pages of the Soviet Anti-Religious Press 2020
Unclear

Describes a shift in Soviet anti-religious journals in the 1960s, where shamanism was reframed from a cultural practice to a universal human capacity for altered states.

historical analysis

The rhythms of trance: Cultural phenomenology and neural mechanisms of music-induced non-ordinary states of consciousness. 2026
Unclear

Integrates anthropological and neuroscientific perspectives on music-induced trance, noting shared features across shamanic and contemporary contexts, but empirical evidence remains fragmented.

review

A Shamanic Interpretation of the Folktale Magical Ruler for Healing and Saving Lives 2026
Unclear

Interprets a folk tale through a shamanic lens, identifying elements such as the axis mundi, spirit helpers, and symbolic death/rebirth as reflecting shamanic initiation.

theoretical analysis

Beliefs in and experiences of sorcery, black magic and brujería among psychedelic users: a quantitative and qualitative survey 2026
Unclear

Aims to estimate prevalence of beliefs in supernatural harm among Western psychedelic users and examine associations with psychedelic experiences; results not yet reported in abstract.

cross-sectional online survey Sample size: 895

The Structural Paradox of the Shamanic Healing Ritual: Relational Displacement and the Search for Transcendence in Korean Spirituality 2026
Unclear

Proposes a relational displacement model for Korean shamanic healing rituals (byeong-gut), arguing they operate as ontological technology that re-maps suffering onto a relational cosmology.

theoretical analysis

Shamanic Symbolism in the Robe Patterns of the Chu State: A Semiotic and Archaeological Study 2026
Unclear

Analyzes shamanic symbolism in robe patterns from the ancient Chu state, revealing a hierarchical symbolic system encoding cosmology and ritual practices.

archaeological and semiotic analysis

Optimizing music for psychedelic-assisted therapy: Examining contemporary practices, traditional entheogenic rituals, and musically-induced peak experiences 2026
Unclear

Identifies conflicting musical features between modern psychedelic-assisted therapy, traditional entheogenic rituals (including shamanic), and musically-induced peak experiences.

interdisciplinary literature review

Where Spirits Still Speak: Chinese Mass Shamanism and the Unfinished Project of Modernity 2026
Unclear

Argues that Chinese mass shamanism is a cultural response to modernity's structural predicaments, including social atomization and the erosion of 'the nearby'.

qualitative analysis

From Shamanic Trance to Spiritual Consciousness: Mapping the Earliest Roots of Human Spirituality 2026
Unclear

Proposes that the origins of human spirituality emerge from early experiential practices embedded within indigenous cultures, including shamanic trance.

theoretical review

A Panpsychist Theory of Shamanism 2026
Unclear

Develops a panpsychist theory of shamanism, arguing that shamanic altered states involve exploration of consciousness and that 'spirit' is another word for mind.

theoretical paper

A Cultural Pathway to Addressing Contemporary Mental Illness: Construction and Healing Logic of the “Virtual Illness” Concept in Shamanism in the North of China 2026
Unclear

Describes the indigenous concept of 'virtual illness' in northern Chinese shamanism, where prolonged mental distress is attributed to possession by malevolent spirits and treated through spiritual healing.

ethnographic study

Points of agreement

  • Shamanism is consistently described as a cross-cultural practice involving altered states of consciousness for healing and spiritual purposes.
  • Psychoactive plants (e.g., ayahuasca, psilocybin mushrooms) are frequently documented as tools in shamanic rituals across different regions and time periods.
  • Ethnographic studies agree that shamanic healing involves a worldview that includes spirits, multiple realities, and symbolic death/rebirth experiences.
  • Music and rhythmic stimulation are commonly identified as key components for inducing trance states in shamanic and related practices.

Conflicts

  • One study (20554) highlights that Western romanticization of indigenous shamanism erases the complexity and injustices faced by indigenous peoples, while other studies (20545, 8498) focus on positive outcomes for Western participants without addressing these power dynamics.
  • The role of purging in ayahuasca ceremonies is framed as therapeutically valuable (20549), but this perspective may conflict with biomedical views that dismiss it as a side effect.
  • Music features in shamanic rituals (simple, rhythmic, fast tempo) conflict with those used in modern psychedelic-assisted therapy (simple, slow tempo) and peak-experience music (complex, surprising) (31367).

Gaps

  • No randomized controlled trials or rigorous experimental designs exist for shamanic practices; most evidence is observational, ethnographic, or theoretical.
  • Long-term outcomes and potential harms (e.g., psychological distress, cultural appropriation) are understudied.
  • The neurophysiological basis of shamanic trance is based on a single case study (n=1) and requires replication with larger samples.
  • Durability of personality changes (e.g., reduced Neuroticism) beyond 3 months is not established.
  • The prevalence and impact of beliefs in supernatural harm (sorcery) among Western psychedelic users are not yet quantified (study 28334 is ongoing).
Browse these studies in the library
How we analyze this

This synthesis reads the 15 most-cited and 10 most recent studies whose primary subject is Shamanism, up to 25 in all. The most-cited set anchors the established evidence, and the recent set surfaces work that is too new to have gathered citations yet.

A study qualifies only when Shamanism or a known alias appears in its title or keywords, so broad reviews that mention it only in passing are left out. Each study is read from its abstract, strongest evidence first, and the summary reports the direction of the results along with any conflicts and gaps.

Ask your own question in the Research Synthesis Tool

Latest monthly recap: June 2026 →

706 articles · 155 from the last two years · 7,534 participants across 92 studies reporting sample size

Common study designs

review 83 ethnography 47 qualitative study 51 historical analysis 67 theoretical or philosophical paper 265

Research

Synthesize the evidence → Search all →

The cultural evolution of shamanism

Manvir Singh 35 citations

Shamanism—including medicine-men, mediums, and prophets—is a near-universal feature of human societies, especially among hunter-gatherers, and is often considered the first profession, the earliest institutionalized division of labor beyond age and sex. This paper proposes a cultural evolutionary theory explaining why shamanism consistently develops and exhibits recurrent features worldwide, why it professionalizes early even without other specialization, and how social conditions shape its form. The theory argues that shamanism adapts to people's intuitions by convincing observers that a practitioner can influence unpredictable, significant events. The shaman ostensibly transforms during initiation and trance, violating folk-intuitions of humanness to assure group-members of interaction with invisible forces controlling uncertain outcomes. Entry requirements persist because credibility depends on transformation, unlike problems with identifiable solutions where credibility hinges on results.

DOI: 10.31235/osf.io/bemhx

Mental Alchemy and the Art of Consciousness Transformation: The Hermetic Science of Inner Mastery

Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) July 17, 2026 Oluwo Jolaoso Osainbola

Mental alchemy is presented as a systematic science of consciousness transformation grounded in the Hermetic tradition, drawing on The Hermetic Code by Ajarn Shaman Shu. The work describes a method for altering consciousness through symbolic and alchemical practices, aiming to achieve personal and spiritual development.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21404018 Shamanism Alchemy Consciousness Telepathy +5

Ritual and Narrative: An Analysis of Survival Resilience in Folk Shamanic Rituals in Tales of Hulan River

Religions July 16, 2026 Qi Zhao, Ruijia Zhang

Folk shamanic rituals in Xiao Hong's novel Tales of Hulan River exhibit a form of survival resilience that operates across material, spiritual, and cultural dimensions. Material resilience involves making reasonable choices under scarcity, fostering critical thinking, and grappling with contingency and eternity. Spiritual resilience provides psychological comfort, motivates goodness, and offers a sense of transcendence. Cultural resilience unites the community around shared goals, promotes pragmatic values, and sustains the rituals themselves. The article argues that these rituals are crucial to understanding the novel's narrative ideas and should not be overlooked in literary analysis.

DOI: 10.3390/rel17070852 Narrative Resilience materials science Contingency Psychological resilience +7

El destino del chamán tras la muerte entre los matsigenka del Bajo Urubamba (Cusco, Perú)

Anthropologica July 15, 2026 Martha Rojas Zolezzi

Matsigenka religious conceptions about the destiny of the vital principle, commonly called the soul, are central to their worldview. This work describes the death of shamans, a topic previously unaddressed in ethnographic literature. Based on participant observation, interviews, and mythological recordings in the Lower Urubamba region and its tributaries Picha and Camisea (Megantoni district, Cusco) from 1996 to 2006 and again in 2018, the final destination of shamans after death is to inhabit the sky inoku with their auxiliary spirits saankariite.

DOI: 10.18800/anthropologica.202601.007 State computer science Legitimacy Humanities Art

Ganesha: Break the Chain — A Scholarly Treatise

Open MIND July 14, 2026 Oluwo Jolaoso Osainbola, Ajarn Shaman Shu, Shri Suryanarayana Swamikal et al.

This article presents a scholarly exposition of the book 'Ganesha: Break the Chain,' proposing a cross-cultural paradigm for breaking generational chains of psychological and ancestral constraint through the figure of Ganesha, Lord of Beginnings and Remover of Obstacles, in conversation with African diaspora understandings of crossroads deities such as Eshu-Elegba. The authors situate the text within Dravidian-Tamil folk religion, especially Pillaiyar worship in Tamil Nadu, and track resonances across Yoruba/Ifa cosmology and Thai-Brahmanical-Buddhist articulations.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21350883 Shamanism Emic and etic Hinduism Diaspora +14

Shurooms: The First Ethnomycological Study from Within the African Initiatory Tradition — Ewe, Soma, and the Ceremonial Architecture of Psilocybin Healing (N = 300+)

Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) July 14, 2026 Shumake, Robert S. (ajarn Shaman Shu | Oluwo Jolaoso Osainbola, Phd | Shri Suryanarayana Swamikal)

This paper presents the first ethnomycological study of psilocybin ceremony authored from within the African initiatory tradition, by an initiated lineage-holder who holds tri-lineage authority as an Oluwo (Yorùbá/Ifá high priest of Osain), Swamikal (Hindu/Dravidian Vedic soma authority), and Ajarn (Thai Buddhist master teacher). Based on participant-observation across more than 300 guided sacred mushroom ceremonies at an urban ashram, with ceremonial doses of 5–10 grams, the study documents a four-part typology of healing: the Successful-but-Armored, the Carrier of Unprocessed Grief, the Interruption of Addiction, and the Spiritually Hungry.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21350490 Shamanism Psilocybin Buddhism Mysticism +15

The Divine Pymander — A Scholarly Treatise

Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) July 14, 2026 Oluwo Jolaoso Osainbola, Ajarn Shaman Shu, Shri Suryanarayana Swamikal et al.

The Divine Pymander is an interpretive translation and commentary on the Corpus Hermeticum that argues for a Kemetic (ancient Egyptian) foundation beneath Western esotericism. Written by a cross-initiatory team holding authority in Ifá, Thai Buddhism, Hindu/Dravidian traditions, and Western scholarship, the paper combines lived ritual knowledge with textual-historical analysis. It finds that the Hermetic figure of Nous (divine mind) parallels Kemetic concepts of a creative divinity, that a lineage of mediated transmission through Hellenistic syncretism and Renaissance reception shaped Western esotericism, and that an initiatory perspective alters philological reading by integrating ritual praxis with textual exegesis. The authors propose that comparative initiated scholarship yields fresh angles on Nous, revelation, and theosis across cultures.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21350929 Buddhism Shamanism Scholarship Hermeneutics +12

The Gita of the Awakened Self — A Scholarly Treatise

Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) July 14, 2026 Oluwo Jolaoso Osainbola, Ajarn Shaman Shu, Shri Suryanarayana Swamikal et al.

This article presents a cross-initiatory re-reading of the Bhagavad Gita that engages Advaita Vedanta, Tamil–Dravidian philosophical currents, and African (particularly Yoruba) contemplative traditions through the lens of self-actualization and transpersonal psychology. The project advances a hermeneutic where nondual realization and ethical agency are reframed as a developmental, soteriological continuum of awakening that finds cognate expressions in Dravidian bhakti and siddha traditions, in Ramana Maharshi's self-inquiry, and in Ifa/Yoruba conceptions of the Self and character. The study is explicitly emic, with the lead author team writing from inside these traditions as initiated authorities. It reveals convergences and creative tensions among South Indian and African contemplative frameworks, proposing a Spiritual Reparations Paradigm that re-centers subaltern epistemologies and repairs colonial dislocations.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21348944 Buddhism Mysticism Contemplation Soteriology +25

traditional use of hallucinogenic plants in Africa

Revista de Arqueología Americana July 10, 2026 Giorgio Samorini

For decades, scholars believed the Old World had far fewer psychoactive plants in traditional use than the New World, attributing this to cultural differences. However, recent research in Africa reveals a wealth of traditional uses of hallucinogenic plants that had been overlooked due to a lack of ethnobotanical investigation. These plants are primarily employed in possession states, serving adorcist or exorcist functions, and often for healing. Examples include the Bori cult of the Hausa in Niger, female initiation rites of the Tsonga in Mozambique, the Fang cult of Byeri, iboga cults in western equatorial Africa, divinatory practices like the misoko of the Mitsogho in Gabon and sangoma in South Africa, and as a truth serum in judicial investigations such as the leba shay of Abyssinia.

DOI: 10.35424/rearam.i44.6065 Shamanism Ethnobotany Hausa Cult +9