Effects of mindfulness breathing meditation on stress and cognitive functions: a heart rate variability and eye-tracking study

Mindfulness meditation is an umbrella term for mental practices that are easy to learn across age, gender, ethnicity, and health conditions. Mindfulness involves conscious awareness of the present moment, attention, and openness. Five specific mindfulness breathing meditation techniques—4-4-4-4 breathing, Kapalabhati, Bhastrika, Nadishodhan, and Bhramari Pranayama—have shown beneficial effects on mental health and cognitive functions. However, the effects of combining these five techniques on perceived stress and cognition have not yet been studied. A combined approach may offer more comprehensive benefits, increase engagement, and reduce boredom, especially for beginners.

Study at a glance

Abstract

In recent years, there has been an increase in research on the effect of mindfulness meditation-based intervention on mental health 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 . Meditation is an umbrella term that involves a variety of mental practices 8 , 9 . Meditation can be used to define the state of consciousness or as the techniques used in mental training 10 , 11 , 12 . Meditation is easy to learn and can be learned by most people regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, educational level, and medical or psychological conditions 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 . Mindfulness can be defined as a state of being conscious and aware of the present moment 19 . It also implies attention, awareness, and remembering to bring back our attention to the present in a receptive way 20 . From a psychological point of view, mindfulness is a cognitive process that brings awareness of one’s inner state, surroundings, and openness to new experiences or information 21 , 22 . However, other researchers stated that words could not easily describe mindfulness because it is an abstruse, subtle, and non-verbal experience 23 . The word “Pranayama” has the meaning of breath regulation practice, with “prana” meaning breath or vital energy and “yama” meaning control 24 , 25 . Mindfulness breathing meditation can be more accessible to beginners as it provides a clear and easily accessible object of attention, i.e., breath, that may be easier for some individuals to establish a meditation practice with a single and straightforward focus. Previous studies have reported the beneficial effects of different types of mindfulness breathing meditation, i.e., 4-4-4-4 breathing meditation, Kapalabhati Pranayama (skull shining breath), Bhastrika Pranayama (bellows breath), Nadishodhan Pranayama (alternate nostril breath), and Bhramari Pranayama (bee breath) on promoting mental health and enhancing cognitive functions 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 . Although a recent study examined the effects of combining meditation techniques, i.e., Mahapran dhvani (buzzing bee sound meditation) and leśyā dhyāna (colour meditation) on attention 30 ; the effects of combining these five types of mindfulness breathing meditation on perceived stress level and cognitive functions have yet to be studied. A combination of these mindfulness breathing meditation techniques could potentially offer a more comprehensive set of benefits compared to just single technique (see the outline of past studies’ mindfulness meditation intervention, which includes a variety of meditation techniques 31 , 32 . This approach would also enhance the intervention appeal, increase participant engagement, and reduce the risk of boredom, particularly among novice participants. The similarities and differences between the five mindfulness breathing meditation techniques are detailed in Table 1 .